Mapa del examen
Midterm study guide
Cada línea de la guía de estudio de tu profesor, enlazada con los temas que la enseñan. Las líneas se iluminan a medida que comprendes sus temas.
Fuente: Psychopharmacology Fundamentals — Study Guide, Midterm Exam (Spring 2026)
Fundamentals and course themes
Drugs (exogenous) vs. neurotransmitters and hormones (endogenous) (aún sin estudiar)
Psychoactive drugs (aún sin estudiar)
Natural vs. synthetic drugs (aún sin estudiar)
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (aún sin estudiar)
The two journeys: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamicsHow drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding site
Primary vs. side (secondary) effects (aún sin estudiar)
Biopsychosocial perspective (aún sin estudiar)
The course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Physical illnesses vs. mental disorders (and drug development) (aún sin estudiar)
The course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Brain and synapse
PNS vs. CNS (aún sin estudiar)
Hindbrain: brain stem (pons, medulla) and cerebellum (aún sin estudiar)
Midbrain: substantia nigra and VTA (aún sin estudiar)
Where drugs act: the brain's regionsDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathways
Forebrain: thalamus, hypothalamus (hormones and homeostasis), basal ganglia/striatum, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, cortex (aún sin estudiar)
Structure and function of neurons (aún sin estudiar)
Excitatory and inhibitory connections (aún sin estudiar)
The neuron and the action potentialThe synapse: release, binding and termination
Action potentials (aún sin estudiar)
Synapse: pre- and postsynaptic neurons, vesicles, neurotransmitters, cleft (aún sin estudiar)
Receptors, enzymes, transporters and autoreceptors at the synapse (aún sin estudiar)
The synapse: release, binding and terminationLocks and keys: receptor specificity, agonists and antagonistsReceptor types: autoreceptors, heteroreceptors and location
Plasticity, neurogenesis and dendritic spine formation (aún sin estudiar)
Glial cells (in general) (aún sin estudiar)
Neurotransmitters and receptors
Presynaptic vs. postsynaptic receptors (aún sin estudiar)
Autoreceptors vs. heteroreceptors (aún sin estudiar)
Synaptic vs. somatodendritic vs. intracellular receptors (aún sin estudiar)
Ionotropic vs. metabotropic receptors; ionotropic subunits (aún sin estudiar)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
G protein-coupled receptors and second messengers (aún sin estudiar)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
Neuromodulation (aún sin estudiar)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
Neurotrophins (BDNF) and TrkB (aún sin estudiar)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptorsPlasticity and neurogenesis
Dietary precursors and why neurotransmitters are made in the brain (aún sin estudiar)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting steps
For every neurotransmitter: precursor, synthesis and breakdown enzymes (the '-ase' tip), where its neurons are, receptor families, functions (aún sin estudiar)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsAcetylcholine: nicotinic, muscarinic and AChEDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeGlutamate and GABA: the brain's accelerator and brake
Acetylcholine: nicotinic vs. muscarinic; parasympathetic system and SLUDGEM (aún sin estudiar)
Monoamines (DA, NE, 5-HT) and monoamine oxidase (MAO) (aún sin estudiar)
Dopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Catecholamines (DA, NE) and COMT (aún sin estudiar)
Dopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Dopamine: tyrosine → DOPA by tyrosine hydroxylase (rate-limiting); functions (aún sin estudiar)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathways
Mesolimbic, mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways (aún sin estudiar)
Norepinephrine: alpha vs. beta adrenergic receptors; sympathetic nervous system (aún sin estudiar)
Serotonin: tryptophan → 5-HTP by tryptophan hydroxylase (rate-limiting); domains 5-HT affects (aún sin estudiar)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Controversy around 5-HT and depressive disorders (aún sin estudiar)
Norepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeThe course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Serotonin syndrome: causes and symptoms ('shits and SHIVERS') (aún sin estudiar)
Norepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeIndirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Glutamate: NMDA receptors, learning and synaptic plasticity (aún sin estudiar)
Glutamate and GABA: the brain's accelerator and brakePlasticity and neurogenesis
Excitotoxicity: causes and outcomes (aún sin estudiar)
GABA and its relation to glutamate (metabolic and functional) (aún sin estudiar)
Histamine: first- and second-generation antihistamines (aún sin estudiar)
Opioids: endorphins and enkephalins; μ-opioid receptors and 'CHARMED' (aún sin estudiar)
Hormones — oxytocin and melatonin (and why they aren't neurotransmitters) (aún sin estudiar)
Endocannabinoids and adenosine (aún sin estudiar)
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics and drug duration (in body, brain, psychoactivity) (aún sin estudiar)
ADME: the drug's journey through the bodyHalf-life vs duration of action
Bioavailability; pKa of the drug and pH of the absorption site; blood vs. brain (aún sin estudiar)
Absorption and routes of administrationDistribution: membranes, protein binding and barriers
Enteral routes: oral (pros, cons, variable bioavailability) and rectal (why higher bioavailability) (aún sin estudiar)
Absorption and routes of administrationFirst-pass metabolism and prodrugs
Inhalation — why the fastest route (aún sin estudiar)
Transmembrane: sublingual, intranasal/insufflation, transdermal (aún sin estudiar)
Intravenous — why the most dangerous route (aún sin estudiar)
Intramuscular (two types), subcutaneous and depot injections (aún sin estudiar)
Lipid solubility in absorption and distribution (aún sin estudiar)
Distribution: membranes, protein binding and barriersAbsorption and routes of administration
Barriers: cell membranes, capillary walls, placental barrier (aún sin estudiar)
Blood-brain barrier: how it differs from normal capillaries; how chemicals cross it (aún sin estudiar)
Distribution: membranes, protein binding and barriersGlia and the blood-brain barrier
Excretion: routes, kidneys, problems with excreting drugs in urine (aún sin estudiar)
Metabolism: liver, nonspecific CYP enzymes (especially CYP3A4), Phase I vs. Phase II (aún sin estudiar)
Oxidation: free radicals, oxidative stress, antioxidants; glucuronidation (aún sin estudiar)
Enzyme inhibition and induction; variability in enzymes (aún sin estudiar)
Prodrugs; first-pass metabolism and ways to avoid it (aún sin estudiar)
Elimination half-life: how calculated, complicating factors; redistribution phase (aún sin estudiar)
Steady state and how to reach it; therapeutic window (aún sin estudiar)
Tolerance: metabolic, cellular-adaptive, behavioral (aún sin estudiar)
Therapeutic window, steady state, washout — and toleranceAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulation
Withdrawal and discontinuation syndrome (aún sin estudiar)
Therapeutic window, steady state, washout — and toleranceAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulationSubstance use disorder: dependence is not addiction
Pharmacodynamics
How drugs bind to receptors; binding affinity (aún sin estudiar)
Shape — differences between isomers (aún sin estudiar)
Sources of differences between drugs and neurotransmitters (aún sin estudiar)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteAgonists: full, partial, inverse and biased
Orthosteric vs. allosteric binding (aún sin estudiar)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteAntagonists and allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs)
Reversible vs. irreversible binding (and duration) (aún sin estudiar)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteHalf-life vs duration of action
Up- and down-regulation — cellular-adaptive tolerance (aún sin estudiar)
Agonists: full vs. partial; biased agonism at GPCRs (aún sin estudiar)
Antagonists: competitive vs. noncompetitive (aún sin estudiar)
Modulators: PAMs and NAMs; how allosteric modulation differs from orthosteric binding (aún sin estudiar)
Indirect agonists: releasers, reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors (aún sin estudiar)
Indirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Drugs vs. supplements and why it matters (aún sin estudiar)
Indirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Tonic vs. phasic responses (aún sin estudiar)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Dose-response curves: potency and affinity, efficacy, slope, variability (aún sin estudiar)
Dose-response curves: potency, efficacy, slope and variability
Why half-life and subjective drug duration come apart (aún sin estudiar)
Therapeutic index: ED and LD (and which percent); TI ratio and safety (aún sin estudiar)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Human-equivalent dosing (mg/kg and a constant multiplier) (aún sin estudiar)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Drug allergy — and why it isn't a side effect (aún sin estudiar)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Polypharmacy (aún sin estudiar)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Biomedical addiction
Substance use disorder: specific types and severity (aún sin estudiar)
Hallmarks of SUD (aún sin estudiar)
Physical dependence — and why dependence isn't a disorder (aún sin estudiar)
Substance use disorder: dependence is not addictionAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulation
Comorbidities (aún sin estudiar)
Substance use disorder: dependence is not addictionWho becomes addicted: genes, stress and dopamine receptors
Brain-disease (biomedical) model of addiction (aún sin estudiar)
The reward circuit: reinforcement and dopamineTreating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Reinforcement learning and reinforcers (aún sin estudiar)
Reward circuit: VTA → nucleus accumbens; role of dopamine (aún sin estudiar)
Biological reinforcers vs. drugs and electrodes (aún sin estudiar)
The reward circuit: reinforcement and dopamineWhy drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Dopamine release to a novel reward vs. after learning (aún sin estudiar)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Time between taking a drug and its reward (aún sin estudiar)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Individual differences: psychosocial factors including chronic stress (aún sin estudiar)
Genetics and dopamine receptor density (aún sin estudiar)
Dopamine receptor down-regulation after drug abuse (aún sin estudiar)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Hypofrontality; reduced inhibitory control (aún sin estudiar)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Cravings and glutamate (aún sin estudiar)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Relapse (aún sin estudiar)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Pharmacotherapies: full vs. partial agonist treatment; antagonist treatment (aún sin estudiar)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limitsAgonists: full, partial, inverse and biased
Newer approaches: glutamate drugs, vaccines (aún sin estudiar)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Problems with the biomedical model (aún sin estudiar)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Clinical trials and policy
Randomized controlled trials: why randomization matters (aún sin estudiar)
Why a placebo control group matters (especially active placebos) (aún sin estudiar)
Why double-blind design matters (aún sin estudiar)
Problems with RCTs in practice: funding, bias, long-term effects, rebound, breaking the blind (aún sin estudiar)
Expectancy effects: placebo and nocebo (aún sin estudiar)
Factors that increase expectancy (aún sin estudiar)
Mechanisms underlying expectancy effects (aún sin estudiar)
Phases of drug trials: Phase I through Phase IV (open-label) (aún sin estudiar)
Controlled Substances Act and drug schedules I–V (aún sin estudiar)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
How drugs are scheduled and why (aún sin estudiar)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
The major difference between Schedule I and the rest (aún sin estudiar)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
Federal Analogue Act (aún sin estudiar)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
The 'War on Drugs' (aún sin estudiar)
Decriminalization vs. legalization (aún sin estudiar)