Exam map
Midterm study guide
Every line of your instructor's study guide, linked to the topics that teach it. Lines light up as you understand their topics.
Source: Psychopharmacology Fundamentals — Study Guide, Midterm Exam (Spring 2026)
Fundamentals and course themes
Drugs (exogenous) vs. neurotransmitters and hormones (endogenous) (not studied yet)
Psychoactive drugs (not studied yet)
Natural vs. synthetic drugs (not studied yet)
Pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (not studied yet)
The two journeys: pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamicsHow drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding site
Primary vs. side (secondary) effects (not studied yet)
Biopsychosocial perspective (not studied yet)
The course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Physical illnesses vs. mental disorders (and drug development) (not studied yet)
The course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Brain and synapse
PNS vs. CNS (not studied yet)
Hindbrain: brain stem (pons, medulla) and cerebellum (not studied yet)
Midbrain: substantia nigra and VTA (not studied yet)
Where drugs act: the brain's regionsDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathways
Forebrain: thalamus, hypothalamus (hormones and homeostasis), basal ganglia/striatum, nucleus accumbens, amygdala, hippocampus, cortex (not studied yet)
Structure and function of neurons (not studied yet)
Excitatory and inhibitory connections (not studied yet)
The neuron and the action potentialThe synapse: release, binding and termination
Action potentials (not studied yet)
Synapse: pre- and postsynaptic neurons, vesicles, neurotransmitters, cleft (not studied yet)
Receptors, enzymes, transporters and autoreceptors at the synapse (not studied yet)
The synapse: release, binding and terminationLocks and keys: receptor specificity, agonists and antagonistsReceptor types: autoreceptors, heteroreceptors and location
Plasticity, neurogenesis and dendritic spine formation (not studied yet)
Glial cells (in general) (not studied yet)
Neurotransmitters and receptors
Presynaptic vs. postsynaptic receptors (not studied yet)
Autoreceptors vs. heteroreceptors (not studied yet)
Synaptic vs. somatodendritic vs. intracellular receptors (not studied yet)
Ionotropic vs. metabotropic receptors; ionotropic subunits (not studied yet)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
G protein-coupled receptors and second messengers (not studied yet)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
Neuromodulation (not studied yet)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptors
Neurotrophins (BDNF) and TrkB (not studied yet)
Fast doors and slow keypads: ionotropic and metabotropic receptorsPlasticity and neurogenesis
Dietary precursors and why neurotransmitters are made in the brain (not studied yet)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting steps
For every neurotransmitter: precursor, synthesis and breakdown enzymes (the '-ase' tip), where its neurons are, receptor families, functions (not studied yet)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsAcetylcholine: nicotinic, muscarinic and AChEDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeGlutamate and GABA: the brain's accelerator and brake
Acetylcholine: nicotinic vs. muscarinic; parasympathetic system and SLUDGEM (not studied yet)
Monoamines (DA, NE, 5-HT) and monoamine oxidase (MAO) (not studied yet)
Dopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Catecholamines (DA, NE) and COMT (not studied yet)
Dopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathwaysNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Dopamine: tyrosine → DOPA by tyrosine hydroxylase (rate-limiting); functions (not studied yet)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsDopamine: receptor families, clearance and pathways
Mesolimbic, mesocortical and nigrostriatal pathways (not studied yet)
Norepinephrine: alpha vs. beta adrenergic receptors; sympathetic nervous system (not studied yet)
Serotonin: tryptophan → 5-HTP by tryptophan hydroxylase (rate-limiting); domains 5-HT affects (not studied yet)
Making neurotransmitters: precursors and rate-limiting stepsNorepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndrome
Controversy around 5-HT and depressive disorders (not studied yet)
Norepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeThe course lens: biopsychosocial, and no 'chemical imbalance'
Serotonin syndrome: causes and symptoms ('shits and SHIVERS') (not studied yet)
Norepinephrine and serotonin — and serotonin syndromeIndirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Glutamate: NMDA receptors, learning and synaptic plasticity (not studied yet)
Glutamate and GABA: the brain's accelerator and brakePlasticity and neurogenesis
Excitotoxicity: causes and outcomes (not studied yet)
GABA and its relation to glutamate (metabolic and functional) (not studied yet)
Histamine: first- and second-generation antihistamines (not studied yet)
Opioids: endorphins and enkephalins; μ-opioid receptors and 'CHARMED' (not studied yet)
Hormones — oxytocin and melatonin (and why they aren't neurotransmitters) (not studied yet)
Endocannabinoids and adenosine (not studied yet)
Pharmacokinetics
Pharmacokinetics and drug duration (in body, brain, psychoactivity) (not studied yet)
ADME: the drug's journey through the bodyHalf-life vs duration of action
Bioavailability; pKa of the drug and pH of the absorption site; blood vs. brain (not studied yet)
Absorption and routes of administrationDistribution: membranes, protein binding and barriers
Enteral routes: oral (pros, cons, variable bioavailability) and rectal (why higher bioavailability) (not studied yet)
Absorption and routes of administrationFirst-pass metabolism and prodrugs
Inhalation — why the fastest route (not studied yet)
Transmembrane: sublingual, intranasal/insufflation, transdermal (not studied yet)
Intravenous — why the most dangerous route (not studied yet)
Intramuscular (two types), subcutaneous and depot injections (not studied yet)
Lipid solubility in absorption and distribution (not studied yet)
Distribution: membranes, protein binding and barriersAbsorption and routes of administration
Barriers: cell membranes, capillary walls, placental barrier (not studied yet)
Blood-brain barrier: how it differs from normal capillaries; how chemicals cross it (not studied yet)
Distribution: membranes, protein binding and barriersGlia and the blood-brain barrier
Excretion: routes, kidneys, problems with excreting drugs in urine (not studied yet)
Metabolism: liver, nonspecific CYP enzymes (especially CYP3A4), Phase I vs. Phase II (not studied yet)
Oxidation: free radicals, oxidative stress, antioxidants; glucuronidation (not studied yet)
Enzyme inhibition and induction; variability in enzymes (not studied yet)
Prodrugs; first-pass metabolism and ways to avoid it (not studied yet)
Elimination half-life: how calculated, complicating factors; redistribution phase (not studied yet)
Steady state and how to reach it; therapeutic window (not studied yet)
Tolerance: metabolic, cellular-adaptive, behavioral (not studied yet)
Therapeutic window, steady state, washout — and toleranceAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulation
Withdrawal and discontinuation syndrome (not studied yet)
Therapeutic window, steady state, washout — and toleranceAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulationSubstance use disorder: dependence is not addiction
Pharmacodynamics
How drugs bind to receptors; binding affinity (not studied yet)
Shape — differences between isomers (not studied yet)
Sources of differences between drugs and neurotransmitters (not studied yet)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteAgonists: full, partial, inverse and biased
Orthosteric vs. allosteric binding (not studied yet)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteAntagonists and allosteric modulators (PAMs and NAMs)
Reversible vs. irreversible binding (and duration) (not studied yet)
How drugs bind: affinity, shape and binding siteHalf-life vs duration of action
Up- and down-regulation — cellular-adaptive tolerance (not studied yet)
Agonists: full vs. partial; biased agonism at GPCRs (not studied yet)
Antagonists: competitive vs. noncompetitive (not studied yet)
Modulators: PAMs and NAMs; how allosteric modulation differs from orthosteric binding (not studied yet)
Indirect agonists: releasers, reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors (not studied yet)
Indirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Drugs vs. supplements and why it matters (not studied yet)
Indirect agonists: reuptake inhibitors, enzyme inhibitors and releasers
Tonic vs. phasic responses (not studied yet)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Dose-response curves: potency and affinity, efficacy, slope, variability (not studied yet)
Dose-response curves: potency, efficacy, slope and variability
Why half-life and subjective drug duration come apart (not studied yet)
Therapeutic index: ED and LD (and which percent); TI ratio and safety (not studied yet)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Human-equivalent dosing (mg/kg and a constant multiplier) (not studied yet)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Drug allergy — and why it isn't a side effect (not studied yet)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Polypharmacy (not studied yet)
Safety: therapeutic index, dosing across species, allergy and polypharmacy
Biomedical addiction
Substance use disorder: specific types and severity (not studied yet)
Hallmarks of SUD (not studied yet)
Physical dependence — and why dependence isn't a disorder (not studied yet)
Substance use disorder: dependence is not addictionAcute and chronic effects: up- and down-regulation
Comorbidities (not studied yet)
Substance use disorder: dependence is not addictionWho becomes addicted: genes, stress and dopamine receptors
Brain-disease (biomedical) model of addiction (not studied yet)
The reward circuit: reinforcement and dopamineTreating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Reinforcement learning and reinforcers (not studied yet)
Reward circuit: VTA → nucleus accumbens; role of dopamine (not studied yet)
Biological reinforcers vs. drugs and electrodes (not studied yet)
The reward circuit: reinforcement and dopamineWhy drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Dopamine release to a novel reward vs. after learning (not studied yet)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Time between taking a drug and its reward (not studied yet)
Why drugs keep reinforcing: prediction, tonic vs phasic, and speed
Individual differences: psychosocial factors including chronic stress (not studied yet)
Genetics and dopamine receptor density (not studied yet)
Dopamine receptor down-regulation after drug abuse (not studied yet)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Hypofrontality; reduced inhibitory control (not studied yet)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Cravings and glutamate (not studied yet)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Relapse (not studied yet)
From use to addiction: receptor loss, hypofrontality, craving and relapse
Pharmacotherapies: full vs. partial agonist treatment; antagonist treatment (not studied yet)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limitsAgonists: full, partial, inverse and biased
Newer approaches: glutamate drugs, vaccines (not studied yet)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Problems with the biomedical model (not studied yet)
Treating addiction: substitution, antagonists, glutamate, vaccines — and the model's limits
Clinical trials and policy
Randomized controlled trials: why randomization matters (not studied yet)
Why a placebo control group matters (especially active placebos) (not studied yet)
Why double-blind design matters (not studied yet)
Problems with RCTs in practice: funding, bias, long-term effects, rebound, breaking the blind (not studied yet)
Expectancy effects: placebo and nocebo (not studied yet)
Factors that increase expectancy (not studied yet)
Mechanisms underlying expectancy effects (not studied yet)
Phases of drug trials: Phase I through Phase IV (open-label) (not studied yet)
Controlled Substances Act and drug schedules I–V (not studied yet)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
How drugs are scheduled and why (not studied yet)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
The major difference between Schedule I and the rest (not studied yet)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
Federal Analogue Act (not studied yet)
The Controlled Substances Act: schedules I–V and the Analogue Act
The 'War on Drugs' (not studied yet)
Decriminalization vs. legalization (not studied yet)